Interviews

The interview research method involves gathering data through direct conversation between a researcher and a participant or participants. It allows for in-depth exploration of topics, probing for rich insights and perspectives. As a qualitative research method, interviews are normally conducted in semi-structured or unstructured formats to address specific research objectives, but sometimes yield unpredicted information that may lead the research in new directions.

The quality of the data gathered through an interview is reliant on the interview design and the interviewer's skill. Poorly designed interviews with leading or unclear questions, along with ineffective interviewers, can bias participant responses, undermining the integrity and validity of the research.

Consent forms must be signed by interviewees prior to the interviewing them, and their anonymity preserved unless they have given explicit approval to be names. It is important to record your interviews and keep a transcript of this, removing personal details that would reveal the identity of the interviewee. If you are interviewing on zoom or another online platform you can automatically record directly.

Semi structured interviews

In semi-structured interviews the questions or discussion points are planned in advance, but in contrast to structured interviews (in quantitative research) the questions are open-ended, allowing for more detail to emerge. It is important that the interviewer retain a neutral position throughout the interview, to ensure that responses are not influenced.

Sometimes a question can be reframed or prompts given, if an interviewee is hesitant to answer, answers too briefly, or doesn’t understand the question. However, it is very important not to pressure for an answer if an interviewee doesn’t want to give one.

In semi-structured interviews, the interviewer has the freedom to follow up on information or lines of enquiry that emerge in discussion. It may be difficult to identify common patterns in interview answers, but much more nuanced and detailed data is gathered than in structured interviews.

Unstructured interviews

In unstructured interviews the interviewer will have a few topics that they would like to gather information on, and their questions will arise based on the interviewee’s response to a discussion of these. Unstructured details allow for a great deal of rich information to be collected and are able to delve deeply into situations, experiences, contexts, beliefs and practices.

An unstructured interview may take longer that a semi-structured one, as the discussions are likely to range across and respond to the information that is uncovered. If the discussion strays too far from the topic of the research, it is important for the interviewer to steer the interviewee back to this in order to gather the data they require.

Focus groups

The focus group research method involves gathering a small group of individuals, normally with similar interests or experiences, to discuss a specific topic under the guidance of a moderator. It encourages the interaction and exchange of ideas, providing qualitative data on feelings, perceptions, thoughts, experiences, or responses to new initiatives, products or policies.

Focus groups ideally comprise between 6 - 8 people, plus a moderator to facilitate the discussions and makes sure that everyone is able to contribute. A series of questions should be prepared beforehand, that aim to gather specific data required by the research. It is important that the moderator steer the participants back to the questions that require answers, should the conversation stray too far from these.

While it is good to do focus groups in person, they can be very successful online too. If you do your focus group online you are able to record it, with the consent of the participants, and then have a reliable record of the session that you can review and make further notes.

Case study

The case study research method involves a detailed investigation of a specific phenomenon, business or organisation, process, activity, practice or individual within its real-life context. It has the potential to yield multi-faceted information and to embrace complexities. A series of case studies may be used as a quantitative research method too. If a case study research method is being used to gather both qualitative and quantitative data, it would qualify as mixed methods research.

Case study research is used by a wide range of disciplines, but most notably in the social sciences. It is frequently used in fashion, design and business research to understand and compare the practices of different designers or businesses. Case studies may be:

Descriptive

Descriptive case studies seek to provide a detailed description of a phenomenon in a real-world context. It presents facts and details without attempting to explain causality or underlying systems and is often used to provide a comprehensive overview for further investigation.

Explanatory

Explanatory case study research seeks to understand the underlying causes and mechanisms behind a specific phenomenon. It goes beyond description to explore the reasons behind what has been observed, to uncover complex relationships, processes, and contextual factors influencing the case.

Exploratory

Exploratory case study research aims to investigate a novel or understudied phenomenon, often with limited prior research. It involves the thorough examination of a single case or a series of cases to generate insights, identify patterns, and formulate hypotheses and new directions for further investigation.

Observation

Observation research method involves systematically watching and recording behaviour, events, places or phenomena in their natural setting without interference. It provides first-hand, detailed insights into specific phenomena in real-life contexts, including conditions, behaviours and interactions, providing valuable qualitative data for analysis and interpretation. Observation may be conducted as:

Participant observation

Participant observation requires researchers to immerse themselves in the natural environment of the subjects being studied. They actively participate in the activities of the group or community while observing and recording their behaviours, interactions, and experiences. It enables in-depth insights to be gained into social phenomena, cultures, organisations or practices.

Object-based research

Object-based research (sometimes known as close textual analysis) involves the study and analysis of physical artifacts or objects to gain insights into historical, cultural, material, artistic, aesthetic or scientific contexts. It focuses on examining specific items of material culture to understand human behaviour, beliefs, technologies and practices. Through close examination, documentation, and interpretation of objects, researchers can identify significant structures, patterns, materials, techniques, symbolism, and changes over time, amongst many other characteristics that may inform and even direct their research. The objects studied may be contemporary or historic - when visits to specialist museum collections and archives are recommended.

Drawing can be an invaluable way to gather insights into the physical properties of artefacts or objects, by making the researcher look even more closely at minute details.

Further information may be obtained through expert interviews and existing literature, to provide further, in-depth data on the object/s.

Findings should be organised and analysed effectively to explain the information gathered and reveal its implications for the research project.

Media analysis should consider who is saying what, in which way, to whom, and with what effect.

Media analysis traditionally involved the collection and scrutiny of texts in the media, as well as visual content – therefore linking it closely to semiotic analysis.

Semiotic analysis

Semiotic analysis examines signs, symbols, and meanings within a range of media texts and visuals to uncover subliminal messages and cultural codes. It examines how these signs convey ideologies, values, cultures and representation, using theories from semiotics to interpret and decode the layers of meaning embedded in media content. A semiotic analysis is a particular approach to object-based researching is one of the lenses that you may use to understand a visual or textual phenomenon.

Semiotics comprise the:

Denotive

Denotative refers to the literal or explicit meaning of a sign or symbol, representing its direct and commonly understood definition without additional connotations or interpretations.

Connotative

Connotative refers to the implicit or associative meanings of a sign or symbol, beyond its literal definition. It includes the cultural, emotional, or subjective interpretations that the sign evokes, reflecting societal values, beliefs, and ideologies.

Mythological

Mythological refers to the deeper cultural or symbolic meanings associated with signs or symbols. It involves understanding the broader cultural narratives, archetypes, and mythologies that shape the interpretation and significance of signs within a specific context or society.

Semiotic analysis can support investigation into the underlying meanings and symbolism of fashion and design objects, campaigns, branding and campaigns, amongst many other phenomena.

Media analysis (qualitative)

Media analysis research requires the systematic examination, analysis and critique of various forms of media content, such as news articles, magazines, television programs, film narratives, blogs, radio, podcasts or social media posts. It aims to understand how media constructs and disseminates information, influences public opinion, and reflects societal values, and may employ either qualitative, quantitative or both approaches to analysis.

Action research

In action research, researchers collaborate with stakeholders in a specific context or organisation to identify specific issues, plan and implement interventions, and then to assess their outcomes. Action research aims either to find practical solutions to identified problems or to deliver improvement. It emphasises the active participation of all stakeholders, including the researcher, and promotes individual and community empowerment and social change.

Action research is particularly appropriate to research collaborations with particular groups, for example with an artisan community, with a community-based organisation or charity, although not exclusive to these.

Autoethnography

Autoethnography is a qualitative research method where the researcher examines and interprets their lived experiences through writing. It involves reflecting on one's own life, experiences, feelings, identities, communication practices, cultural norms, and values to understand broader social, cultural and political contexts.

Auto-ethnographers view writing as a dynamic practice that is integral to the research process, driving and generating their understanding, and leading the inquiry forward.

Key to this process is self-reflection, which enables the auto-ethnographer to identify and interrogate the intersections between themself and multiple internal and external factors.

Autoethnography may be difficult to make generalisations from, as it is so specific to the auto-ethnographer, but does provide very rich data that embraces complexity.

Practice Research

It is important to be aware that there is a clear distinction between your practice and your research. Practice can only qualify as research when it can be shown to be located in a research context.  It is important to make very clear the role that practice plays in your research.

For example, practice can be used to initiate research questions, provide context for investigation, may be part of the methodology, and is usually part of the dissemination of the research.

Practice research is a generative method, with new insights and potentials for the research emerging through practice itself. It is rarely a straightforward, linear process, but rather may require circling back to review more literature, interview experts/stakeholders, or employ another method, and then fold this information back into the practice.

Practice research has traditionally been framed in two main ways:

Practice-based research

Practice-based research involves an original exploration using creative practice to acquire new knowledge. The knowledge contribution of practice-based research can be demonstrated through a wide range of creative outputs such as images, designs, models, digital media, maquettes, sample products, experiments, and artefacts.

While the significance and context (and often process) of practice must be described in accompanying text – for example, in an article, dissertation or thesis - a comprehensive understanding of the research requires direct engagement with the practical work itself.

Practice-based research can provide insights into the individualised, interconnected, and subjective nature of our world, to reveal subtleties and complexities. It works well in combination with other research methods to create a robust research design.

Practice-based research is often accompanied by a written component – for example, an article or dissertation – where it is crucial to demonstrate the significance of the practice itself within the text, explaining in detail the role that the practice has played in the creation of new knowledge for the research.

Critics of practice-based research argue that it lacks rigour as it is not repeatable or generalisable in the ways that conventional research methods might be. Nevertheless, it provides a vital tool for creative practitioners to develop, understand and express their research, and has the potential to offer fresh and imaginative insights.

Practice-led research

Practice-led research focuses on understanding the nature of practice to generate new knowledge with practical implications for that practice. The primary objective is to enhance understanding of the practice or to advance knowledge within practice.

Therefore, if the research leads to new understandings about practice, it is practice-led.

Unlike practice-based research, the outcomes of practice-led research can be fully explained through textual descriptions without incorporating a practical, creative work.

Wardrobe analysis

Wardrobe analysis or studies is a research method studies that focuses on the materiality of clothing and associated practices relating to its use, wear, meaning and value. It involves field work where a detailed inventory and analysis of individuals’ wardrobe contents is conducted, and may be supported by interviews or personal narratives, and even laboratory testing, to cast light on the relationship between the wearer and their clothes, how clothes are used, what clothing is kept and cared for, and aspects of emotional attachment.

It is most often used in consumer studies, business studies, fashion studies, cultural studies, material culture studies and anthropology.

Quantitative research methods

Quantitative research gathers numerical data in systematic and objectives ways, and uses statistical analysis to measure certain phenomena, patterns or trends that emerge through this. Findings from quantitative research often yield generalisable conclusions about the phenomena under investigation, and quantitative research is considered more easily replicable than qualitative. Put simplistically, quantitative research asks thewhat and the how much questions.

Structured interviews

Structured interviews involve asking every respondent identical questions in a consistent manner, often with a predetermined set of questions and potential responses. This method enables interviewing to generate quantitative data analysis, with questions and answer choices predetermined in advance for uniformity and comparability.

Pre-coded responses will enable you to compare interview responses easily. Typically, answers are recorded directly on the questionnaire to maintain consistency and to streamline the analysis process.

Surveys

Surveys are most frequently used as a quantitative research method, although are able to capture qualitative data too. They involve gathering data from a sample population through structured questionnaires or interviews. They aim to gather information on attitudes, opinions, behaviours, characteristics, knowledge or circumstances, or other phenomena. Researchers are therefore able to analyse trends, make comparisons, and draw conclusions about a larger population.

Surveys can be conducted in person, by telephone, through the mail – or, very easily, over the Internet. Numerous platforms offer survey functions now, such as Googleform and Survey Monkey, with the ability to analyse the data and create graphs and pie charts from it.

Media analysis (quantitative)

Media analysis research involves systematically examining various forms of media content, such as news articles, television programs, or social media posts. It aims to understand how media constructs and disseminates information, influences public opinion, and reflects societal values, and may employ either qualitative, quantitative or both techniques for analysis.

Quantitative approaches to media analysis employ measurable scientific methods to examine media content, involving counting exact numbers, ratios, percentages, etc., to gain objective insights into the scale of media representations relating to certain themes, topics and their modalities.